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حاصل جمع صفر
Globalization has brought greater prosperity to almost all nations, making zero-sum competition for resources less bitter than in previous eras, when European great powers fought massive wars in an effort to add to their material wealth and power.
Hard bal- ancing presupposes intense rivalry or expected rivalry-sometimes of a zero-sum nature-among the balancing states, whereas soft-balancing coalitions tend to be ad hoc.
The availability of colonial theaters for expansion made the competition less zero-sum, and it was not until the territories for colonial conquest were largely occupied that statesmen once again began to view competition in zero-sum terms.28
For others, the war's causes lay more in great powers' neglect of the institutions they had created for war prevention, and their return to zero-sum competition based on miscalculation and misread- ing of their adversaries' capabilities and intentions.
The superpower-led conflict was largely zero-sum, despite some occasional efforts at cooperation, and few of the facilitating conditions for soft balancing were present.
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